Health-war Politics,
Economy, Indian Society and
Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam

Suresh Kumar

 

The nature of Indian society believes in Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, a Sanskrit verse in Hindu texts; “Vasudhaiva” being the earth, and “Kutumbakam” meaning the family. Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam is translated as “the world is one family.” The complete Sanskrit verse explains that Indian philosophy carries people with a generous heart and all of humanity is a family.

Cultural Diversity in India and Africa: A Strength Not A Problem

Suresh Kumar and Halilu Babaji

Indian Journal of African Studies, Vol. XXlll, April & October 2018, Nos. 1&2

 

Introduction

India and majority of African countries are multi-ethnic and culturally diverse society that has witnessed conflicts arising from ethnic and cultural identity. Culture and cultural diversity in India and Africa to many tribal communities are place without history. The complexity, richness and intellectual dept of India and Africa shows culture and cultural diversity as a strength not a diversity due to their common heritage and share values that bind them together as one unified family or clan. India-Africa in both literatures has a flavour in attracting negative headlines about identity, cultural differences, norms, values and beliefs which were not ignored but show the huge creativity of different people that shares a common heritage. India-Africa has a common cultural challenge, and the challenges are daunting. The economic performance among tribal communities and its potential has giving rise to chronic unemployment and poor living conditions in large parts of the regions. Every community in India and Africa has cultures that constitute the frameworks for their lives and behavioural patterns. Cultural factors and diversities in both countries affect economic behaviour and the social and economic performance of nations which can only be best appreciated and explained against the background of the prevailing cultural domains. This has bearing with the prevailing differences in subsisting institutions. Cultural trajectories affect policy formulations and implementations and how they drive growth and development. India-Africa are ethnically and linguistically diverse country that has very significant implications in almost every area of their economy.

 

This paper seeks to investigate the impact, influence, and consequences of interconnection between cultural diversity and identity in India and Africa. The multi-ethnic differences and cultural identity has shaped the manner and behaviour in which people behaved with one another in terms of interaction which shows more strength than problems. People with different identity comes together to share different values. The cultural diversity in every society is place where groups of people live or exist and share different ideas, experiences, set of beliefs and communicate with one another. It is only human beings who have the capacity for diversity which allows them to communicate cultural ideas and symbolic meanings from one generation to the next and constantly create new cultural ideas. It is this capacity for language that separates humans from other primates.

It is difficult to move from one cultural group or region of India and Africa without noticing some element of diversity that shows different signs of strength rather than problem. Most people have heard the term “cultural diversity.” This involves more than adjustment to different types of houses, food, mode of dressing, dialect, cultural marks, norms and beliefs that created a wider gap between different cultural groups. The whole pattern of organization of the new place may be totally different from one’s home culture. Differences may be small, at first, but many. One may experience many small irritations, sometimes unidentifiable, and these build up. Finally the irritations and disorientation build up to a breaking point. This may result in depression, anger, criticism. Some resort to overwork to avoid contact with people. Others schedule administrative work instead of field work for the same reason. Others develop symptoms of general lethargy or hyperactivity, depending on the individual and multiple other factors.

Cultural diversity is an integral part of every society, so also mode of communication. Language is central to cultural diversity because it is the means through which culture is learned and communicated in diverse societies of India and Africa. When a group begins to lose its language, its cultural tapestry starts to unravel. As infants eat the food of a particular culture that is different from theirs to which they belong, and learn the language, they simultaneously acquire the language of the society to which they were born into.

 

India and African Philosophical Identity

A society or cultural group in India and Africa is an extremely complex collection of historical identity, religious concepts, relational patterns, and shared experiences of all kinds. The present character of an ethnic group or a political entity is the result of centuries of shared experiences, and entails a coherent thought-system that helps make sense of those experiences and maintain the values developed over the history of different groups. A philosophy has two aspects when considering a whole culture or people. There is the consistent worldview shared by the people and the system of social requirements and roles and beliefs within most societies in these nations. The second aspect is a formal statement of this, which for the Westerner includes a rational analysis and systematic statement. Many societies have no philosophy in the second sense. Yet the shared worldview and social identity which clearly understood by members of that society that they could give an outsider answers to questions concerning what is expected of members of the society in various situations, and concerning the beliefs of the society about various things. These answers could lead to the construction of a “formal” statement which would represent the general world-view of the people of India and Africa as a whole.

The West has a long history of formal and rational philosophy which informs us of our cultural and intellectual heritage. Through this we can trace the development and change of Western thought over the centuries on India and Africa, giving a better understanding of the cultural diversity in India and Africa as strength not a problem. It is true, however, that most members of Western societies are unaware of our cultural diversity. Indian and African worldview may be considered basically religious. All things are seen to be related or connected; everything is united in existence. You cannot be objective with that sort of a world– you are part of it. Everything that is done involves you as well as everything else. In the Indian and African world, God is understood as Creator, though he is far away. In Indian and African view of reality, everything is related, thus it is basically a “religious” worldview. All that exists is “spiritual,” a part of one unified Whole. The European normally views India and Africa as divided into “sacred” and “secular.” Thus the religious realm, for many, is a separate realm from the normal activities of basic everyday living. For “religious” Westerners, commitment to God often means commitment to what is beyond this life and this world.

 

Spiritual Realities

 

This would seem a strange pattern of reality for most Indians and Africans. Most Indians and Africans would see no need to divide reality in that way. Though God might be far away in terms of his personal relationships with humans, it would not be a common belief that there are actually two levels of reality which could be separated as the Western view indicates. It might appear superficially that the Indian and African traditional view of the departed ancestors would indicate a “sacred” and a “secular” reality for them. It seems to me that, on the contrary, it actually illustrates the unity of reality for these nations. The closeness of the living to the dead and their memory indicates that there is, in fact, one reality which is shared by both the living and the dead. God is not seen as living away in some other world. It is accepted that God the Creator is a different type of being than his human creation, but not that the world of his existence is a different one. All of reality is one, humans share the world with spiritual realities.

 

Verbs or Nouns?

These basic differences in perspective on India and Africa are apparent even in the languages. In the African languages, especially the Bantu languages such as Swahili, the verb system is the key to meaning. Likewise most of the Indian languages. It is difficult for Europeans to get into the Indian and African way of thinking about things, because they “do it” with verbs. Verbs are the words that express action, relationship, conditions. In Western languages, nouns and adjectives are most important. In this “format” we have a noun, representing a thing, and then we describe it. The world is thought of as made up of entities. The totality of reality is the sum of these entities. Some entities are living, and these living entities act independently, initiating actions and relationships with other entities, either living or non-living. Because the world is made up of entities, things or objects, westerners believe that if we can describe it, then we can understand it. If we can understand it, then we can control it. Then we can manipulate the world, change our environment. Nouns and adjectives – that is, things and their descriptions – are primary to a European, a Westerner. But to an Indian and African, activity and relationships are primary.

 

The Individual

Finally, in the African situation, group identity and relational obligations are paramount. In the West things are very individualistic. Westerners believe in rights, not obligations. (Though some would, of course, say that there are obligations that come with rights. Freedom does have its responsibilities). Western concepts of justice are developed in terms of rights and protection of those rights. Europeans define themselves individually, and in small family groups, whereas African society is organized in very close-knit, broad family groupings. The group is what is important, the group is the point of identity. The individual is defined by his or her relationship to the group. Obligations to the group as a whole are more important than individual “rights” or privileges.

 

Discipline

This concept of individualism versus community shows up in the patterns of discipline. Europeans often comment that Kenyans (African) do not discipline their children, and yet Kenyan children often seem better-behaved than European children. The significant factors in discipline are different in the two contexts. Expectations are not the same and the areas of discipline are not the same. Indians and Africans discipline their children but not in the same or perhaps not for the same things as European parents. The process of socialization in the two societies is quite different. The teaching and training of an American child, for instance, centres on moving the child to independence and decisive action. American children also tend to be active or unruly, as they are not used to sitting still. African children may sit quietly in a long church service, but the American children will squirm, talk, play, wiggle and in general make a spectacle of themselves.

The American approach to training is basically “inductive.” It seems that, in principle, Americans assume that a child should know what to do and should do what is right. (Perhaps this stems from the naive American belief in the goodness of humanity.) This means that Americans commonly teach their children by correction after the child has broken a rule. (This is the inductive approach – correction, rather than directive teaching before the act). European parents seem to place more emphasis on individual responsibility of children for their acts. It seems that Americans often treat their children as “little adults”. In European culture there is really no specific time when a child becomes an adult. In contrast, most African and Indians societies have a specific ceremony or rite which marks the change in social status and responsibility. On the other hand, in the African society, because everyone is a part of the single social unit, responsibility is defined in terms of group relationships and obligations, not in terms of individual initiative as in the West. There is an event called initiation in most Indians and African cultures, at which time there is a formal change in status and role for the child, and a change in expectation for the child. From this time in the initiates life, the former child would be expected to fulfil an adult level of responsibility. The specific expectations and role obligations will vary from one ethnic group to another, and particularly from the rural areas to the cities. In the Indians and African cities focus will be more individualistic and emphasize more individual responsibility.

 

Greetings

Always remember the value of greetings. Greeting is much more important for Indians and Africans than for Europeans. Always take time to greet even those with whom you will have only casual contact. It is important that you recognize the existence of individuals. Be ready always to extend your hand in greeting. Hand shaking is a very important ritual in India and Africa. Observe the particular forms of handshaking, palm touching, bowing and so forth, in each particular ethnic or geographical setting. A triple-shake is common in much of Eastern and Southern Africa. In India and Africa, handshaking may be replaced by other hand signals. For instance, the Shona greeting in Zimbabwe is clapping both hands together. Note the manner of clapping, which differs for women and for men. Observe also the appropriate body and head motions which accompany handshaking and greeting. This will vary from one area to the other. Note particularly the common practice of holding the right wrist, elbow or forearm with the left hand while shaking with the right.

 

Indigenes and settlers

Objectively, the concept of ‘indigenous’ in Africa is a dangerous fiction in a continent with highly mobile populations. Nonetheless the notion of an ‘indigene’ has recently taken on strong political overtones in India and Africa. As a reaction to domination of education and employment by a few ethnic groups with powerful organisational skills, both countries have developed a quota policy in many areas of public life. University entrance, jobs in the civil service and passports are now subject to quotas or caste, with a certain number of places reserved for the ‘indigenous’ population of particular states and municipal councils.

However, the secular and pan- Africanist ideology that dominated in the post-Independence era required a move away from such patterning to more inclusive structures which often split ethnic groups between administrative zones or implicitly handed power to minorities. Sometimes this was intentional, sometimes probably just a chance by-product of remote cartographers. The growth in power of local governments and the increasing articulacy of their residents have created a continuing state of friction that is little short of catastrophic for stable and effective management. This is to show that diversity in India and Africa is a strength not a problem.

 

The Ethnicity Dimension in India and Nigeria: A Historical Perspective

The ethno linguistic fragmentation of India-Africa and Nigeria in particular is extreme, even in comparison to European countries, and there is strong evidence that the picture today still represents a falling off from the diversity in pre-colonial times. The twentieth century saw both the assimilation by many minority groups, a process that can be expected to continue, but also a demographic expansion of many very small groups to substantial populations. A key element in the ethnic differentiation sharpened by the colonial ideology was the division of the country into different ethnic line. These began as early as 1916 and grew in size and importance until Independence in 1960. A policy of cataloguing division ran very much counter to the ideology of independent Nigeria, and for this reason, linguistic and ethnic surveys were discontinued by the state and not encouraged in the universities. Indeed, policy has remained divided on this issue; the rise of a notion of ‘indigenousness’ effectively recognising such divisions, but with government-controlled media and documents emphasising unity. Ethnicity is thus tacit in accounts of political divisions; although it is well known which ethnic bloc politicians represent, this is rarely openly discussed in the media.

 

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is difficult to move from one cultural group or region of India and Africa without noticing some element of diversity that shows different signs of strength rather than problem. Most people have heard the term “cultural diversity.” This involves more than adjustment to different types of houses, food, mode of dressing, dialect, cultural marks, norms and beliefs that created a wider gap between different cultural groups. The whole pattern of organization of the new place may be totally different from one’s home culture. Differences may be small, at first, but many. One may experience many small irritations, sometimes unidentifiable, and these build up a stronger relations in the mixed of different people with different cultural identity living in a definite area of a state. These identities build of stronger relations with adequate learning environment. People learned from a diverse cultural diversification such as food, clothing, greetings, norms and values among others which shows that cultural diversity is strength rather than a problem.

 

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Agriculture Development & Land Resources Mobilization in Africa

Prof Suresh Kumar & Dr Chandrakanta K Mathur

 

Agriculture is the major land resource in Africa that leads to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food, resulting in food systems that underpin food security. The management of land resources deals with availability of food, access of food and its utilization (Nutritional values) so that the food systems’ mobilization is secured accordingly. The management of soil and water resources in a sustainable and equitable manner needs a new wave of land reforms with a clear political vision in Africa. Land is becoming a diminishing resource for agriculture, in spite of a growing understanding that the future of food security will depend upon the sustainable management of land resources as well as the conservation of prime farmland for agriculture. The U.N. Committee on Food Security (CFS) has highlighted Land Tenure and International Investments in Agriculture. It analyses the potential impact of acquisitions, particularly in Africa, on food security. It has been estimated that 50 million to 80 million hectares of farmland in developing countries has been the subject of negotiations by international investors in recent years. Two-thirds of it in sub-Saharan Africa is widely recognized as a “hot spot” for endemic hunger. Along with it, Africa needs an alternative food security that is possible to culture fisheries on the land that needs to mobilize the land resources as per the quality of the soil (Barren or Semi-barren land) and the availability of the water. Urbanization and globalization are causing rapid changes to food systems. The future of food security will depend upon the sustainable management of land resources as well as the conservation of prime farmland for agriculture. Africa needs an alternative food security that is possible to culture fisheries on the land that needs to mobilize the land resources as per the quality of the soil (Barren or Semi-barren land) and the availability of the water. Even with all the advances made in capture and culture fisheries, nearly 90 per cent of food requirements will have to come from the soil.

Ample virgin land of Africa needs scientific technology to develop the agriculture sector and agro-industry to cater their population on the one side and to become a food basket for the world community on the other side. The export in agro-industry will increase foreign currency reserves and boost the economic growth of the continent. Agro-industry is the sector that will minimize the Africa’s population dependence on food products and other needs of the kitchen. Agro-industry sector will enable the African rural community to utilize their agricultural crops in the best way and introduce alternative sources of food products in their lives. The additional source will enhance their monthly income and contribute to the agriculture & allied sector comprehensively. The Resolution of the Abuja Food Security Summit of 2006 identifies nine continental strategic commodities (rice, legumes, maize, cotton, oil palm, beef, dairy, poultry and fisheries products) and some regional strategic commodities (cassava, sorghum and millet) for private investments in Africa. Introducing agro-industry for these selected strategic commodities, India can assist the genuine African market and offer an appropriate economic space for Indian investments at the level of regional economies. India’s experience of agro-industry can strengthen agricultural commodity chains across the borders and accomplish the needs of African population as well as global market.

Africa continent appreciates the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and gives importance to the Agriculture development as a goal of SDG.  The integrated rural development moves towards sustainability with the introduction of hydraulic, hydro-agricultural and drinking water projects in Africa. This plan strengthens the access to drinking water in rural areas having the construction of a water treatment plant that ensures water security in the region. The scientific development in the agricultural sector acts as a catalyst for balanced and sustainable economic growth in all the regions and combating the effects of climate change. It will boost the livestock production, help in food security and strengthen income generation of millions of farmers and will promote their living conditions.

India declared during the last Forum Summit of 2015 about the India-Africa Food Processing Cluster that will contribute to value-addition and creation of regional and export markets, an India-Africa Integrated Textiles Cluster to support the cotton industry and its processing and conversion into high value products, an India-Africa Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting to harness satellite technology for the agriculture and fisheries sectors as well as to contribute towards disaster preparedness and management of natural resources and an India-Africa Institute of Agriculture and Rural Development. India will work with Regional Economic Communities to establish at the regional level, Soil, Water & Tissue Testing Laboratories, Regional Farm Science Centers, Seed Production-cum-Demonstration Centers, and Material Testing Laboratories for Highways. The Forum Summit 2015 has focused on the Africa’s self-reliant development in agriculture sector and initiates an alternative to African countries either to go for the SAP or build indigenous techniques in the partnership with India and achieve the real reliant development and get rid of any sort of colonial past.

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About Authors:

Prof Suresh Kumar, Former Head, Department of African Studies, University of Delhi

Dr Chandrakanta K Mathur, Assistant Professor, SPM College, University of Delhi

Epidemic of COVID-19 and Support of Indian Pharmaceutical Industry in Africa

Prof. Suresh Kumar & Mr. Raj Kumar

Introduction

COVID-19 or commonly known as Corona Virus has spread in most of the parts of the Africa continent. As a result, more than 10,000 people have already been infected across the continent and more than 500 people have already died. South Africa, the most industrialized economy in the continent has already 1749 cases of Corona, followed by Egypt (1450), Algeria (1468), Morocco (1184) and others (Hindustan Times, Delhi, 10 April 2020: emphasis mine). The World Bank fears that the Corona virus outbreak is going to push Sub-Saharan Africa into recession this year for the first time in 25 years. The damage done so far across Africa needs an affirmative support of pharmaceutical industry and the continent is looking towards India being all time supporter. India is one of the leading exporters of generic drugs across the world and supplies up to 50% of the United States generic drug needs.

This epidemic has disrupted the supply chains of the global pharmaceutical industry and gives a good opportunity to India to reassess dependencies and plan for the future global market demands. Government of India investment policy claims India ranks third in the worldwide for pharmaceutical production by volume and 13^th by value (www.investmentindia.gov.in/sectors/pharmaceuticals: 10 April 2020). Indian pharmaceutical products are known by its affordable lower price in the world and attracts the heavy demands in the global market. India is known as the pharmacy of the world by its best products having cheaper prices for the end user in the global market.

Pharmaceuticals is one of the major components of India’s trade expansion strategy in Africa. India always supports Africa through low cost generic medicines in treating the HIV, tuberculosis, malaria and others. As a result, Indian company Cipla supplies HIV/AIDS drugs at a dollar a day in Africa reduces the financial burden on the government and the sufferers. The EXIM Bank recently highlights that commercial trade between Africa and India has expanded more than eight-fold from $7.2 billion in 2001 to $59.9 billion in 2017. According to projections, Africa’s-India trade could double by 2021, especially if appropriate steps are taken by sovereign and corporate entities to reap the full benefits of growth and of the potential offered by the two trading partners (EXIM Bank Report, 2018. Deepening South-South Collaborations. Cairo:06).

Health Status of Africa

The epidemic of the COVID-17 in Africa has become a major threat in its health system.  Africa’s relatively weak health system also face other infectious diseases such as HIV, Malaria, tuberculosis and others. The WHO estimated that it provides COVID-17 testing kits and protective equipment’s to health workers in the thirty-six African countries only.  Health care in Sub-Saharan Africa remains the worst in the world, with few countries able to spend the $34 to $40 a year per person that the WHO considers the minimum for basic health care. Most of the region lacks the infrastructure to deliver health care and faces a severe shortage of trained medical personnel. The New Report of IFC estimates that over the next decade, $25-30 billion in new investment will be needed to meet Africa’s healthcare demand. This is a chance to increase access to health care for millions of Africans. The opportunities for private investors demand for investments in better production facilities and distribution/retail systems for pharmaceuticals and medical supplies (IFC, 2020).

Support of Indian Pharmaceutical Industry

India is known for its supportive partnership in all the crisis period in Africa. The medical wing of Indian Peace Keeping Forces under the guise of the UNO has been produced exemplary work and opened its medical support to the civilian’s community of the African society. The author personal experience of observing the working of the medical corps of the UNMEE mission of India in Ethiopia and Eritrea by sharing the medicinal support to their societies free of cost and proved its humanitarian mettle.

Similarly, the pharmaceutical industry of India has proved in reducing the sickness burden in dealing communicable and non-communicable diseases by providing the generic medicine in cheaper or affordable prices to the African society. This is the only valid ground that Indian pharmaceutical accounts about 40% of the total export in Africa (EXIM Bank India Report, 2019) and cherishes its fertile ground of serving humanity.

The current situation of market in Africa is uncertain and it will take time to assess the impact of COVID-19 on the local market. Indian pharmaceutical should redesign its investment plan in Africa keeping the longer time period in mind and look for the opportunities accordingly.

Indian Support against COVID-19

Government of India is equally concerned about the needs of medicinal support to the world community including Africa continent in fighting against COVID-19 epidemic and partially lifted a ban on the export of hydroxychloroquine and paracetamol medicines, a drug in controlling the high fever of human body on 6^th April 2020. China, India, USA, Europe, Brazil, South Korea and other countries have recommended these medicines as one of the several treatments for COVID-19 patients. Ministry of External Affairs and Department of Pharmaceuticals are equally concerned about the request of supply the drugs mentioned above to the African countries and look into affirmatively. Mr. Narender Modi, India’s Prime Minister is personally connected with all the African Head of States via hotline telephonic communication and will deal their concerns supportively. Mr. Bipul Chatterjee, Head of CUTS Centre for International Trade, Economics and Environment stated, “This decision was an ideal example of how trade equations will develop in the post COVID-19 world, where food and medicines will increasingly become part of national security concerns. In this case, India seems to have enough hydroxychloroquine to export on humanitarian grounds” (TIME, 7^th April 2020).

Challenges & Conclusion

Today, Africa urgently need the virus testing kits, personal protective equipment’s and generic medications in bulk. China’s health industry is question marked because of its:

1. Doubtful quarantine mechanism on its industrial export production,
2. Genuine reliability of COVID-17 free supply of medical equipment’s and medicinal products in the world market,
3. Unreliability of prices of medical equipment’s and pharmaceutical for export purposes,
4. Uncertainty of working of Chinese industries and their supply chains in the given environment,
5. Use of Chinese medical products may become a continuous threat of epidemic, and
6. Re-beginning of attack of COVID-17 in China and world in large and its impact thereupon.

Under the given circumstances, the pharmaceutical industry of India should plan for the multi-dimensional approach in Africa by adopting humanitarian approach, flexible market approach and orientation of future investment in pharmaceuticals in Africa by connecting State, market and people. This wholistic approach of Indian pharmaceutical industry will support the implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) from July 2020 onwards on the one hand and will accomplish the task of becoming the world biggest supplier in the world including Africa on the other hand. Concludingly, India respects its partnership in developing capacity building for healthcare and pharmaceutical industry and infrastructure that will support the self-reliant program of Africa in longer terms.

https://diplomatist.com/2020/04/13/epidemic-of-covid-19-and-support-of-indian-pharmaceutical-industry-in-africa/

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Prof Suresh Kumar, Former Head, Department of African Studies, University of Delhi

Mr. Raj Kumar, Assistant Professor, Political Science, SPM College, University of Delhi

What Alternative against Boko Haram, ISIS and Al Qaeda in WANWA?

Dr Suresh Kumar and Mr. Babaji Halilu

Afroasian Business Chronicle, Vol.5, Issue 2, 2014

Political tension and environmental scarcity in the West Asia, North and West Africa (WANWA) has given rise to the diffusion of arms and long-standing migratory patterns facilitate their transfer across borders (Figure-1). Lethal Weapons are used both by government forces (military and police) and by non-state actors (guerrillas, ethnic militias, self-defence units, violent criminals etc) engaged in conflicts against each other or against the state, or in violent criminal activities. The old doctrine of Divide & Rule seems more prevalent across Africa, resurging again in West Asia and extending towards broader South Asia particularly in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The division of Sudan in the name of religion (Islam-Christian), Congo in the name of tribalism and an effort to divide Somalia, Nigeria and Morocco on the name of tribalism in Africa and Syria and Iraq through Shia-Sunni in West Asia comes under this old colonial doctrine. The cause of concern for Rule here is the natural resources mainly oil and precious minerals. The prime concern for researchers here is from where these sophisticated weapons are coming from despite touching the silver jubilee of the end of Cold War and raising the following points such as:

1. International terrorism has no place in the lives of common man and it is always condemned and boycotted.
2. Is it a conscious plan to fill the empty hands of unemployed educated youth with weapons and lure them to get easy money and destabilizing rule of law in the WANWA region underDivide & Rule doctrine?
3. The international players seems supporting their dummy Head of State on the name of democracy in WANWA region and protecting their unaccounted billions of dollars as a part of commission by sanctioning oil field and mining areas to these players.
4. Can the alternate mode of South-South development and self-reliant produce peace, security and development in WANWA region?

Combinations of political manipulation, extreme poverty, deteriorating livelihoods, and environmental degradation contribute to people’s willingness to take up arms not as a part of terrorism but for their own survival in the absence of employment opportunities. The presence of poorly-paid and poorly-trained security forces further ensure a steady supply of weapons to civilians. What explains this contradictory situation between economic underdevelopment on the one hand and gun proliferation and armed conflicts on the other hand is the strongest expression of the injustice in the paradox of wealth that characterises situations of conflicts in WANWA region. It is the fact that people who produce wealth are the poorest and are leading to Civil strife’s in Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Mali, South Sudan, Syria and now Iraq. International players (Total, Philip, Shell, Shevron, Halliburton, Agip and others) who are wealthy take the wealth by forcible act under the Divide & Rule doctrine.

2. It seems that it is a conscious plan as there are an estimated seven to ten million illicit small arms and light weapons in the West Africa, and one to three million in circulation in Nigeria. It is an estimate claim that 80 percent of the weapons in civilian possession had been obtained illegally and it plays a central role in fostering instability, weak governance, insecurity and poverty, armed robberies, intra-and inter communal feuds, local wars, insurrections, armed rebel activities and terrorism. Guinea-Bissau, with a long history of being a reservoir for leftover Soviet-supplied weapons, is a key source of illegal trafficking in to conflict zones in the Sub-region (Figure-1).

The assessment report identified the Guinea forest and the Parrot Beak regions as the most prominent routes for trafficking arms within the Mano River Basin. The borders between West Africa’s states are long and full of footpaths, which are poorly patrolled. More than 150 illegal crossing points were identified to and from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Liberia. Over 85% of crossing points were covered by fewer than 11% of the customs, immigration and security officials identified. The Sierra Leone border threat assessment report established that smuggling of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) can be a real threat to stability in both Mano River Basin and the entire region. These SALW being the part of conflicts in Somalia, Liberia, Sudan, Sierra Leon among others, as well as licensed weapons being stolen or lost, have played a major role in exacerbating crimes and armed violence in West Africa.

3. The sources of SALW in WANWA region are international, regional and sub-regional. After the conclusion of the Cold War, the deregulation of former state arms industries in eastern and central Europe and USA led to an aggressive search for new arms markets in the developing world through the activities of states, arms brokers and mercenaries. The dummy Head of State is another cause of concern as there is alleged alliance between this group and the key politicians in the country; a factor which many believe is responsible for the difficulties in resolving the problem. The entire link of the Boko Haram sect with national politics continues to attract controversies and concerns. Boko Haram is the key player in arranging all the transactions within the routine networks (Figure-1). The first is the confirmed link between the organisation and Al-Qaeda, especially through Mali and the Maghreb region. In fact some Boko Haram members were arrested with names and contact details of members of Al-Qaeda. In addition to it, Mr Sanusi Lamido Sanusi, the former Central Bank Governor of Nigeria had exposed a $20 billion case of fraud in the country’s notoriously opaque oil industry in February 2014 verifies the point made above about the role of international players protecting unaccounted billions of dollars. It further ratifies that the money is a part of commission by sanctioning oil field and mining areas to these international players. It has created financial uncertainty in Nigeria as the currency, bond and money markets stopped trading for the day and theNaira had briefly plummeted to a record low prior to the premature market close.

Similarly, the story of West Asia (at present Syria and Iraq) is not so different from West and North Africa with the only distinction that youth is involved in killings in the name of Shia-Sunni division. The aggressive search for new arms markets in Syria and Iraq has established their strong footings through the activities of states, arms brokers and mercenaries. The Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS), an affiliate in Iraq and Syria has hidden understanding with the Al Qaeda’s central leadership even in the name of Shia-Sunni conflicts. The easy availability of arms weapons to ISIS through Al-Qaeda and their circulation within and across borders facilitates the formation of new armed Sunni groups and the use of untrained civilians militias, ill disciplined fighters, and unaccountable mercenaries. ISIS has captured Tikrit, Mosul and possibly Tal Afar and is not far from Baghdad (Figure-2). This crisis has displaced hundreds of thousands of Iraqis and assault on the Baiji oil refinery made havoc in the international oil markets as it currently exports around 2.5 million barrels of oil per day. Earlier, the United Nations press release of June 2014 stated that one family flees Syria every 60 seconds because of the violence in the bloodiest civil wars. The crux is that the religion is not the cause of religious conflict; rather for many… it frequently supplies the fault line along which intergroup identity and resource competition occurs and international players use Divide & Rule to serve their purposes.

4. Can the alternate mode of South-South development and self-reliantce produce peace, security and development in WANWA region? Presently, the WANWA region is a major trans-shipment point for the international trade, as well as a major producer of local arms. This phenomenon threatens the consolidation of democracy and security in the region, which is necessary for sustainable development. Arms trafficking and the conflict divert scarce resources away from social services, disrupt trade, discourage tourism, and contribute to the breakdown of family structure. The pervasiveness and persistence of the conflict also have grave psychological consequences as children are traumatized or become accustomed to cultural violence.

Socio-economic underdevelopment presents both a breeding ground for and a consequence of the proliferation and misuse of SALW. The long-term impacts and costs of SALW in terms of human and economic development affect societies as a whole, and the adverse effects of armed violence on poverty, social spending and economic development perpetuate human suffering. SALW can have a negative and destructive impact on human development, including health and mortality, knowledge and education, income and standard of living, and community participation. SALW also play a key role in criminal activities and damage to property and can become an integral part of day-to-day business and commerce, which have a negative impact on employment, investment and growth of post-conflict countries. Widespread use of small arms in business and commerce frequently has a detrimental effect on business activity and employment which in turn fuels poverty. As a result, there may be less opportunity to work and earn an income as investment declines – not only large-scale Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), but also by local or regional entrepreneurs who may not want to take the risk.

Summing up, India has a great deal of complementarities between WANWA countries and provides the alternate mode of South-South development and self-reliance produce peace, security and development through:

1. Most of WANWA states do not provide strong budgetary support to different sectoral development. These governments should be committed to raise the budgetary allocation to different sector to shape economic growth positively. It is suggested that WANWA leaders should take commitments from all the Indian investors for the adequate training of HRD including skilled labour in different sector on the one hand and work for transfer of technology on the other hand.
2. WANWAis the only region in the world where agricultural productivity has not grown noticeably. In fact, the Green Revolution, which enhanced agricultural growth in India, is yet to take place in this region. The WANWA agro-industry as a sector has substantial potential to improve the economies and hence the livelihood of its large populace. India produces a variety of agricultural equipment that will enhance the production in this region.
3. Indiais willing to develop the WANWA region self-reliant development in agriculture sector and initiates an alternative to this region government’s either to go for the existing pattern or build indigenous techniques in the partnership with India and achieve the real reliant development and get rid of any sort of colonial past.
4. The MSME and SME sector of India has been already introduced to WANWA countries. It needs proper power support and land to set up their industrial units. The land is available in rural areas but this region does not have power potential. These countries should focus on the power generation to reach to the villages, wherever the MSME and SME sector is set up that will help to generate the employment for local people.
5. India’s experiences of scientific education system should be practiced to promote the WANWA youthto join scientific education and other polytechnic programmes. Moreover, scientific education should be an important component of different universities to strengthen the education pattern here.
6. The WANWA rural economic empowerment is another challenge. WANWA governments should initiate the process ofRural Cooperative Banks. These banks may provide different loan schemes for SME sector and provide modern mechanical support like tractors and other implements, credit to local people and subsidized technical guidance and other financial assistance to rural society. These banks should strengthen micro-finance and Self Help Groups in the rural society.

Conclusively, the widespread availability of arms weapons is a threat to human security that can be resolved only through peaceful ways. Confidence building measures on the one hand and providing employment opportunities for the youth as an alternate mode of living life on the other hand is the only way forward.

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Political Economy of Post Civil War Mozambique: An Opportunity Prof. Suresh Kumar India-Mozambique Relations, June 2013. Diplomatist ****************************** Introduction The fifteen years long civil war (1977-1992) had devastated the country’s socio-economic fabric along with the killing of one million people and displaced about five million people. The first multi-party election took place in 1994 and the country is now building on its stability by promoting foreign investment opportunities. Historically, by about 900 AD trading links had been forged with India, Persia, China and Arab world. Gold was the major lure for these merchants and it attracted the Portuguese to Mozambique with the arrival of Vasco de Gama in 1498 on his way to India. Mozambique was governed from Goa until 1752, when it brought under direct control from Lisbon. This historical link with India was built by Indian trading communities settled down there and their influence is clearly seen today. President Frelimo in the post civil war restructured political economy through its development agenda around a new Action Plan for Reducing Poverty (PARP 2011‑14). This plan focuses on investment opportunities in agricultural production, power & energy, oil & gas sector, infrastructure development, tourism sector, education sector and promotion of employment linked to the development of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and investment in human and social development. 1. Investment Opportunities in Agriculture Sector The wide diversity of soil types and climatic conditions, access to over 60 rivers and 36 million hectares of arable land greatly enhance Mozambique’s potential as an agricultural exporter. The main agricultural exports include cashew nuts, cotton, sugarcane, a variety of fruits and vegetables and tobacco, but virtually any crop can grown easily in Mozambique – and harvesting can occur months before other countries.   The rich waters in the Indian Ocean offer a variety of seafood products from world famous tiger prawns to crayfish to langoustine – as well as a variety of fish such as tuna, grouper and cod.  Mozambique also has 19 million hectares of productive woodland, rich in tropical hardwood and to a lesser extent eucalyptus and pine.  The natural potential of the sector offers a wide range of opportunities for timber, construction materials, furniture, wood products and pulp (Institute of Export Promotion Mozambique, 2011:7). More than 95% of cashew marketed output is produced by about 1.4 million small family farmers in Mozambique and has cashew investment opportunities, distribution of production in North 57%, Center 24% and South19%. The investment opportunities in Mozambique has fvourable agro climatic conditions for cashew production having land available for new orchards, potential for new processing plants, all production provinces with acres to the see (Export infraestructures) and appropriate institutional environment. The investment opprtunities in chashew plantations as per the available area is mentioned under Table-1. Table-1, Opprtunities in Chashew Plantations as per the Available Area South Zone: ( regular to irregualr rainfall, irrigation potential) Province Area (ha) District Production (Metric Tons) Current Plants (Metric Tons) Inhambane 75.000 Panda, Massinga, Funhalouro, Vilanculos e Mabote 9000 2500 Gaza 69.500 Chibuto, Chicualacuala 1000 3500 North Zone (regualr rainfall, irrigation poetential) Cabo delagado 50.400 Palam, Nangade, Macomia, Balama, Chiure 10,000 3500 Nampula 25.000 Mogincual, Mogovolas Meconta 50,000 30,000 Zambezia 25.000 Maganja da Costa 12,000 3500 Source: Rua da Resistencian, 2012:1-4. CINCAJU. Maputo. The Mozambican production and its presentation on global markets require a new approach in the packaging sector, to create conditions for the country to compete in an international market, where rules are constantly changing and consumer demands are rising continuously. The MOZNEGOCIOS-International Packaging and Packaging Equipment Trade Fair 2-10 June 2011 has involved producers, suppliers and consumers of the packaging industry from Mozambique and other countries.  In this second edition, the MOZNEGOCIOS fair brought together companies of the packaging sector and agro-processing enterprises. Mozambique offers some of the best shipping ports in Southern Africa, serving as a link to the sea for its landlocked neighbours and the rest of the world.  The three main ports in Mozambique are in Maputo, Beira and Nacala.  The port at Maputo is the hub of the surrounding fishing and agricultural industries serving South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe.  The ports in Beira and Nacala serve Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe.  Beira is linked to by road and rail to the African hinterland.  The recently modernized ports in Mozambique enable them to handle millions of tons of cargo arriving from and departing to distant international destinations (Institute of Export Promotion Mozambique. 2011:8). 2. Investment Opportunity in Power and Energy The power crisis and its shortage are well marked in Mozambique despite their tremendous hydro, solar and other sources. India’s experience of power generation and its distribution to all remote areas to cater its millions of population is willing to exchange with the country. Table-2 shares the investment opportunities in power sector in Mozambique. Table-2, Power and Energy Infrastructure Investment Opportunities Project Description & Contact Details Sector & Total Value (US $ million) Mphanda Nkuwa Hydropower plant Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 2500 US$ Million Moatize Coal Fire Power Plant Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 2000 US$ Million Benga Coal Fired Power Plant Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 900 US$ Million Moamba Natural Gas  Combined Cycle Power Plant (750MW) Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 1300 US$ Million Cahora Bassa North bank Power Plant (1245 MW) Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 800 US$ Million Gigawatt Cycle Combined Power Plant Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 125 US$ Million Lurio Hydropower Plant Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 400 US$ Million Massingir Hydropower Plant Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 50 US$ Million Majawa and Berua Hydropower Plants Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 120 US$ Million Alto Malema Hydrpower Plant Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 124 US$ Million Lupata and Boroma Hydropower Plants Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 124 US$ Million Chokwe Cycle Combined natural Gas Fired Thermal Power Plant Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 75 US$ Million Maputo Cycle Combined Natural Gas Fired Thermal Power Plant Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 85 US$ Million Tete-maputo Transmission Libe Project (Backbone Transmission Line) Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 2400 US$ Million CESUL Project Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 2400 US$ Million Cahora bassa Norte (CHB NORTH) Project Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 350 US$ Million Moamba Project Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 49 US$ Million Benga Project Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 86 US$ Million Moatize Project Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 70 US$ Million Lupata and Boroma Project Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy 124 US$ Million Source: Project Opportunities, 2012. CII and EXIM Bank of India: 7-115. 1. Investment Opportunity in Oil & Gas The oil & gas opportunities in Mozambique attract the foreign investors.  The practice of transfer of technology is appreciated by the country and inviting Indian investors in this sector (Table-3). 1. Moamba Natural Gas Cobined Cycle Power Plant Initially, the construction of the Project was planned to take place in Moamba, in Maputo Province, with a total capacity of 750 MW, under the responsibility of EDM, Intelec and Sasol. In 2009, the Project verified some constrains, with a paralysation of approximately a year, due to financial crises which have affected Eskom from South Africa, with implications for the conclusions of the PPA negotiations that was underway. The concept of Moamba Project with a capacity of 750 MW was in better line for Mozambique option, once, besides the development stage achieved, the project would provide opportunity for the effective time use of the natural gas allocated for the country, evaluated in 27 million of GJ comparing with other alternatives options (Table-3). During the Semester- I of 2010, EDM and Eskom have done some alternatives options evaluations, namely, for the medium scale projects, which its design has had in consideration the consumer needs and the level of the country increase. The results of the evaluations done conclude to develop the Project with an option for 150 MW for the Phase I, in Ressano Garcia, fully operational on the last quarter of 2012. In addition and taking to account that the 150 MW will not maximize the use of the natural gas available to Mozambique, the Government approved a proposal of the national investor for the development of a Project with a capacity of 280 MW, with the expected date of operation at the end of 2013. 1. CESUL Project The construction of 1500 km transmission line, also known as the backbone transmission line, on which the development of various projects, including Benga and Mphanda Nkuwa, are dependent (Table-3). The timing for equity funds deals with the demonstration of commitment at financial close such as: Phase 1a: end of 2011 for equity commitment: Phase 1b: end 2012 for equity commitment: Project will be developed in two phases as PPPs, on a BOT basis. Table-3, Oil & Gas Opportunities Project Description & Contact Details Sector & Total Value (US $ million) Mozambique Moamba Natural Gas Cobined Cycle Power Plant Locaton: Ressano Garcia, Moamba District, Maputo Province Total capacity: 750 MW Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy US$ 1300 Million Project Name: CESUL Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Power & Energy US$ 2400 Million Source: Project Opportunities, March 2012. CII, Export-Import Bank of India, Ministry of Commerce, Government of India: 6-56. 1. Investment Opportunity in Infrastructure India has offered 5 billion US dollars for the next three years under lines of credit to help Africa achieve its development goals during the Forum Summit 2011. The list of Line of credit as on January 2012 has been allotted to Mozambique as mentioned in Table-4. Table-4, Line of credit in the Infrastructure Programme as on January 2012 US $ million Purpose 20.00 Electrification of Gaza province 25.00 To finance IT Park project which will comprise construction of building and (a) incubator facility, (b) research and learning center and (c) technology park and administrative facility 30.00 Rural electrification project in the provinces of Gaza, Zambezi and Nampula 25.00 Rural electrification of Cabo Delgado, Manica, Niassa Provinces 13.00 Solar Photo voltaic Module manufacturing Plant Source: Background Note, 2012: 78-85. The tremendous market opportunities in Mozambique persuades the region to develop inter and intra connectivity via road, railway, air, river and sea routes. Table-5 highlights the different route and transport infrastructure investment opportunities in the country. Table-5, All Routes & Transport Infrastructure Investment Opportunities RSS Corridor (Nampula to Cuamba) Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Road Upgrade 201 US $ Million RSS Corridor (Lichinga to Cuamba) Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Road Upgrade 174 US $ Million RSS Corridor (Morupa to Montepuez) Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Road Upgrade 135 US $ Million RSS Corridor (Lichinga macaloje to Matchedje) Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Road Upgrade 150 US $ Million RSS Corridor (Sunate to Oasse to Mueda to Ngapa to Negomane) Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Road Upgrade 258 US $ Million Road No: R698, N381, R1251 (Montepuez to Mueda to gapa to Negomane Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Road Upgrade 222 US $ Million Road No: R371, R1204 (marrupa to Meculato Gomba to Negomane) Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Road Upgrade 174 US $ Million Road No: R 762 (Pemba to Ibo) Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Road Upgrade 60 US $ Million Source: Project Opportunities, 2012. CII and EXIM Bank of India: 7-115. 1. Investment Opportunity in Tourism India’s experience of developing Science and Technology (S&T) in the country as per the needs of the vast population is appreciated in the developing countries.  The S&T invokes the work in developing ICT parks, tele-communication, well-designed construction of tourism adventurous places, connecting villages to cities, incubation Centre with state of art facility, international universities and institutes like Microsoft and others. Table-6 shares the investment opportunities in this sector in detail. Table-6, S & T and Tourism Infrastructure Investment Opportunities Project Description & Contact Details Science & Technology and Tourism Sector & Total Value (US $ million) Northern ARC Tourism Project Contact Details– www.visitmozambique.net 252 US $ Million Crusse/Jamali Contact Details– www.visitmozambique.net Infrastructure/ Tourism Inhassoro Contact Details– www.visitmozambique.net Infrastructure/ Tourism Maputo Elephant Reserve Contact Details– www.visitmozambique.net Infrastructure/ Tourism Maulana Science and Technology Park Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com S & T Park Source: Project Opportunities, 2012. CII and EXIM Bank of India: 7-115. 1. Investment Opportunity in Education The main objective of the sector is strengthening the higher education system through training of faculty, establishing linkage among India and Mozambique higher educational institutes and experience share through study tour. Table-7 highlights the project on Mozambique and the investment offer in it. Table-7, Education Sector Construction Investment Opportunities Project Description & Contact Details Sector & Total Value (US $ million) Mozambique Science and Technology University Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Education & Skill Development 10 US $ Million National Biotech Centre Contact Details– vipachihale@yahoo.com Education & Skill Development 9 US $ Million Source: Project Opportunities, 2012. CII and EXIM Bank of India: 7-115. Conclusion Mozambique government keen to come out of the civil war trauma and it is possible only through the development in the right perspective. The democratic elected government strengthens the different aspects of the political economy to reach the down trodden people of the society and this is the right approach to curb any incident of innocent killings of people. The country deserves global recognition for its policies, which aimed at political stability and economic growth. Mozambique is an example of what Africa offered the world and a good example of overcoming the tragedy of war and even the SADC recognizes the government’s role to stabilize the country and the region. **************************

Last Updated on Monday, 25 November 2013 12:42

Tinderbox situation in North Africa: Can Have Dangerous Spillover Effects

(Comment: Special to IANS)

Dr Suresh Kumar

IANS

May 23, 2014 Last Updated at 10:00 IST

http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/tinderbox-situation-in-north-africa-can-have-dangerous-spillover-effects-comment-special-to-ians-114052300360_1.html

The region of Sahara and Sahel in northern Africa is currently undergoing dramatic changes, and faces serious security threats and escalating tensions. Several cases and developments reflect this critical situation — from the upsurge in terrorist activities in the northern parts of Mali, to the decision of Algeria to close its borders with Libya due to the prevailing security turmoil and chronic instability in that country, to the unclear political situation in Egypt, a series of terrorist attacks and deadly bomb blasts in Nigeria, staged by the terror group Boko Haram that has been in the international spotlight after its kidnapping of more than 200 schoolgirls.

The root of the Maghreb conflict lies in the separatists’ claim of a minority of the Moroccan population that is known as Saharawi. This group, with financial and military support of Algeria, attempts to segregate a portion of the Moroccan territory to form an independent state.

In this regard, the refugees in the camps of Tindouf in Algeria provide a huge pool and fertile ground for the radicalization and recruitment of terrorists among the youth, who have lost hope, live in harsh and difficult conditions, and are at the mercy of the dictatorship of the Polisario leadership. Polisario is a rebel Saharawi group seeking an independent land in Western Sahara.

They are simply fed up with the status quo and are in favour of finding, without any further delay, a final and lasting solution, particularly after the adoption of the UN Security Council’s Resolution 2152.

This resolution called upon the parties to find a just, final, and mutually acceptable political solution to this regional dispute. It also underlined the centrality of negotiation as the only way of resolving this issue, and reaffirmed the primacy of the autonomy initiative presented by Morocco, whose efforts have been qualified as “serious and credible”.

It is in this particular context that violent clashes took place May 11 this year in these camps between members of a group dubbed “Movement of the Young People for Change” and security forces of the Polisario. This group denounced, via a video, the precarious and inhumane living conditions, prevailing in the camps of Tindouf, and accused the Polisario leadership for its tyrannical rule and illicit wealth.

Furthermore, many international human rights groups reported that the Saharawis living in the Tindouf camps, controlled by the Algerian-backed Polisario Front, are systematically denied basic human rights as well as the freedom of movement, expression, and association. They also suffer from the corruption of the Polisario leadership, and its misuse and embezzlement of international humanitarian aid that is supposedly meant for the refugees.

Therefore, the whole region remains afflicted by the spectre of terrorism, and tackling these security challenges requires, inter alia, an urgent settlement for the Sahara conflict, with the help of the international community, particularly the countries that are playing a prominent role in international relations, and working for peace and security in the world, remains an urgent imperative for the world.

Rabat considers the southern provinces as a constitutive part of its national territory. The territory of the Sahara to Morocco is of “vital interest” by which a nation risks everything, even war. Morocco may negotiate an autonomous status and differential rights for the Sahrawi people, but will never cede sovereignty over this territory.

Therefore, at a time when the fire caused by the Arab Spring of 2010, is still burning in Egypt, Libya and Syria, when Mali and rest of the Sahel have become a vast “lawless space” where terrorism, organised crime, drug trafficking and Tuareg separatism proliferates, the UN should understand that the most intelligent thing to do is to focus on a final settlement of the Sahara conflict and not accentuate tension in the already troubled North Africa.

(Dr Suresh Kumar is Associate Professor, Department of African Studies, Delhi University. The views expressed are personal. He can be contacted at skafrica2003@gmail.com)

— Indo-Asian News Service